Most people would like to be more effective at persuading people to do as they want, so I was intere ted to read a fine article by social psychologist Robert Cialdini in February's edition of Scientific American. He outlines the six basic human tendencies that are active in generating a positive response to a request.
These include: reciprocation, consistency, social validation, liking, authority and scarcity. An appreciation of these tendencies can not only help us as individuals, but would greatly help public health programmes to make a more effective impact.
1. Reciprocation: I give money to some favourite charities every year so I largely ignore requests for contributions from other sources. Recently I received a solicitation from a South American charity, enclosing a little gift of cloth woven by the people the charity is helping. I was touched and felt obliged to reciprocate by sending a donation.
Charities have noted that mailshots seeking contributions are more successful when a free gift is enclosed. Members of all human societies naturally feel obliged to repay in kind what they have received. Charitable organisations are not alone in exploiting this psychological angle - food stores offer free samples, magazines offer free trial subscriptions etc.
2. Consistency: People like to behave in a manner consistent with their public commitments. Cialdini illustrates this by quoting the experience of a restaurant receptionist. When someone phoned in a dinner reservation, the receptionist would say, "Please call if you have to change your plans." Thirty per cent of people who made reservations failed to show up.
The restaurant-owner asked the receptionist to make a small change in her request to people making reservations. She was asked to say, "Would you please call if you have to change your plans?" and then pause for a response. The response was critical. Public commitments direct future action. The no-show rate dropped from 30 per cent to 10 per cent.
3. Social Validation: People feel encouraged to engage in activities approved by their peers. Cialdini describes an experiment in which a man walking down a New York street suddenly stopped and stared up at the sky. Most people brushed past him paying no attention, but 4 per cent of people also stopped and looked up. The experiment was repeated with five men suddenly stopping to gaze upwards. This time 18 per cent of passers-by joined them. The experiment was repeated with 15 men and 40 per cent of passers-by joined in.
Charitable organisations and others often exploit this principle of social validation by presenting you with a list of people in your neighbourhood who have already donated or purchased the product. Unfortunately, public health education programmes frequently fall foul of this principle by calling undue attention to the large numbers of people who are engaging in an unhealthy activity.
A case in point is the campaign aimed at reducing the numbers of teenagers who bingedrink. Calling attention to the large numbers who binge-drink tends to validate the practice in teenagers' minds. Such campaigns should, as far as possible, avoid accentuating the large numbers involved and should concentrate on examples of how admired people succeeded in changing to a healthier lifestyle.
4. Liking: People tend to co-operate with those they like. This principle is exploited effectively by the Tupperware Corporation which organises its sales worldwide through a network of agents who demonstrate and sell Tupperware products to their neighbours.
It has also been shown that if the person(s) of whom you are making a request knows nothing of you personally, they will be much more likely to favour your request if they find you physically attractive. Good-looking fundraisers are twice as successful as those perceived to look plain.
It is also helpful when you are making a request of a stranger if you can establish some connecting bond, e.g. "Ah, so you're from Wexford too." Another method is to pass a genuine complimentary remark about them.
5.Authority: Cialdini cites another interesting study. A casually dressed man stands impatiently in a group at a pedestrian-crossing on a busy street. He is anxious to cross the street and strikes out against the lights during a small break in traffic. A few people follow his lead. The experiment is repeated, but now the man is dressed with an air of authority, collar and tie and smart suit. This time four times as many people follow his lead across the street.
Manufacturers of commercial products exploit the authority principle whenever possible by saying, "scientific research has shown" or "four out of five doctors recommend", etc.
6.Scarcity: People are interested in acquiring things perceived to be scarce. This is why marketeers like to emphasise the unique nature of their products and put out "limited time only" or "limited supply" promotions.
Evolution has programmed us to value reciprocation and consistency, to be impressed by social validation, to reward those we like, to respect authority and to be impressed by scarcity. Understanding and acting on social psychology can ease one's path through life. These principles of social psychology can also be abused, by donning a false cloak of authority, by pretending to like people etc. Having an understanding of the psychological principles of persuasion can help one to discriminate between genuine and false claims.
William Reville is a senior lecturer in biochemistry and director of microscopy at UCC.