A veteran player in Libya’s power struggles, the 80-year-old rogue general Khalifa Haftar controls much of eastern Libya and is a challenger to the Tripoli-based government that is recognised by the United Nations.
Haftar was among the officers who helped bring former leader Muammar Gadafy to power in a coup in 1969 before falling afoul of the long-time Libyan ruler and going into exile as an opposition figure in the United States.
When Gadafy was overthrown and killed in 2011, Haftar returned to Libya and established himself as a major force. Haftar rejected the authority of the UN-recognised government based in Tripoli and set up the Libyan National Army (LNA) forces, with which he sought to conquer the capital in a civil war that raged from 2014 to 2020 before ending in ceasefire.
Libya remains split between two rival administrations that are hostile to each other, with a complex patchwork of armed factions backed by different foreign powers.
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[ The Irish soldiers who trained a rogue general’s army in LibyaOpens in new window ]
Haftar controls large parts of the east and south, including major oil facilities, and has begun to exert influence beyond the country’s borders, reportedly backing the rogue paramilitary Rapid Support Forces that are fighting for control of neighbouring Sudan.
The renegade military commander is not without controversy. His forces have been accused by various international NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty of human rights abuses in Libya.
Considered an aspiring strongman, Haftar has appointed his sons to powerful positions within his army. His youngest son Saddam, born in 1991, is seen as a rising power and possible successor.
Saddam oversaw the training of the LNA’s 166 Infantry Brigade by Irish Training Solutions, according to sources familiar with the arrangements. Irish Training Solutions co-owner Danny Cluskey was pictured signing papers on a desk bearing Saddam’s nameplate, and Saddam came to observe the demonstration of military skills put on by the 166 Infantry Brigade to show off their training by Irish Training Solutions last summer.
[ Flood tragedy will not loosen Haftar’s grip on eastern LibyaOpens in new window ]
The Haftar faction is backed by Egypt and the United Arab Emirates, and enjoys a close relationship with Russia. The Russian mercenary Wagner group is present in key strategic points under Haftar’s control, amid a rush for contracts to exploit Libya’s vast oil reserves.
Haftar has reportedly at times enjoyed the covert support of France – though this is officially denied in Paris – and is said to be seen as a traditional Arab strongman whose firm hand is needed to hold Libya’s factions together, an ally to stop migration to Europe, and a bulwark against Islamist forces.
The UN-recognised Tripoli government has been supported by Turkey, making Libya the testing ground for international rivalries as Moscow and Ankara vie to shape the future of northern Africa against the backdrop of their involvement on opposite sides of the conflict in Syria.
The UN arms embargo was introduced in 2011 by the UN Security Council in a bid to prevent the violent breakdown of the country as it was torn between rival factions backed by different international powers. It has been repeatedly reaffirmed since then, but despite this has been widely flouted.
International involvement in Libya and breaches of the embargo are blamed by UN experts for preventing the normalisation of the country, perpetuating instability and violence, and stopping the holding of elections. Ireland deployed a naval ship to join the EU’s Operation Irini last summer in a bid to enforce the arms embargo by intercepting illicit shipments of weapons in the waters off Libya.
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